It can happen that when a bulb fails, the tungsten filament vapourises. This allows an excessive current to flow, which made your main switch trip.
If there was a loose connection in the lampholder, the excessive current could have caused a spark at that point. This in turn could have burned off just a small amount of the wire at the connection, so there's no longer a path for the electricity to the new bulb.
Somehow, you'll have to check that the wires in the lampholder are properly connected to the terminals.